Quantum computing explained

Alright, let’s walk through this step by step.

We’ll start with the basics of ordinary computers, then gently step into why quantum computing is different, without heavy math or physics jargon.

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1. Start with a normal computer (classical computing)

A normal computer works with bits.

A bit is like a tiny switch that can be either 0 (off) or 1 (on).

· Everything you see on your screen—text, images, videos—is made up of huge lists of 0s and 1s.

· Each operation a computer does is like flipping these switches in patterns according to rules.

Think of it like millions of light bulbs, each either on or off, and the computer changes their states in clever ways to calculate things.

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2. The “problem” with normal computers for some tasks

Some problems are easy for classical computers (like adding numbers).

But some are extremely hard because the only way to solve them is to check many possibilities one by one.

Example:

Imagine I give you a giant combination lock with 100 dials, each with numbers 0–9.

To find the code, you might have to try all combinations: 000…001, 000…002, etc.

A classical computer would try them one after another.

If there are billions of possibilities, it takes too long.

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3. Enter quantum computing: the core idea

A quantum computer works with quantum bits (qubits).

Unlike a normal bit (which is either 0 or 1), a qubit can be in a “superposition”—meaning it’s in a mixture of 0 and 1 at the same time.

Imagine spinning a coin:

· A classical bit is like a coin lying flat: heads (0) or tails (1).

· A qubit is like a coin spinning: it’s not heads or tails yet—it’s in a fuzzy mix of both until you stop and look.

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Why is superposition useful?

If you have 2 classical bits, they store one of these combinations at a time:

00, 01, 10, or 11.

But 2 qubits (in superposition) can represent all 4 combinations at the same time in a blended quantum state.

With n qubits, you can represent 2ⁿ combinations simultaneously.

50 qubits could hold 2⁵⁰ combinations at once (that’s about a quadrillion).

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4. Quantum parallelism (not the same as normal parallel computing)

Because qubits are in superpositions, a quantum computer can perform a single calculation on all those combinations simultaneously.

But there’s a catch: when you measure qubits at the end, they collapse to one definite answer (0s and 1s).

So the trick is to design the computation so that wrong answers cancel out, and the correct answer “survives” with high probability when you measure.

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5. Entanglement (quantum linking)

Another quantum magic:

Two qubits can be entangled—their states are linked no matter how far apart they are. Change one, the other instantly changes in a related way.

This lets quantum computers handle correlations between bits in ways impossible for classical computers, making certain calculations faster.

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6. Analogy: searching a maze

Imagine a huge maze with many paths.

· A classical computer tries one path, hits a dead end, backtracks, tries another.

· A quantum computer (thanks to superposition) is like being in all paths at once, feeling which one leads to the exit by quantum interference, and collapsing to that path at the end.

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7. What can quantum computers do better?

They won’t replace your laptop for everyday tasks. They excel at specific problems:

1. Factoring large numbers — breaks many encryption codes (Shor’s algorithm).

2. Searching unsorted databases faster (Grover’s algorithm).

3. Simulating molecules for drug discovery (molecules are quantum systems, so simulating them naturally fits quantum computers).

4. Optimization problems (like logistics, scheduling).

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8. Challenges

Qubits are fragile: any noise, heat, or vibration can destroy their quantum state (this is called decoherence).

Quantum computers today need extreme cooling (near absolute zero) and error correction, so building large, stable ones is hard.

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9. Simple summary metaphor

Classical computing is like reading a book one page at a time.

Quantum computing is like opening the book in such a way that light shines through all pages at once, creating a pattern on the wall that tells you something about the whole book without reading each page.

space station facts

Of course! Here is a top-ten quiz about space stations, followed by an overview of the major countries' progress in the field.

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Top 10 Quiz: Space Stations of the World

Instructions: Test your knowledge of past and present orbital outposts! Answers are below.

1. First in everything: What was the world's first space station, launched by the Soviet Union in 1971? Salyut 1

2. American first: What was America's first space station, launched in 1973? Skylab

3. Modular pioneer: Which Soviet/Russian station, operational from 1986 to 2001, was the first modular space station and held the record for continuous human presence (almost 10 years) before the ISS? Mir

4. Current colossus: What is the name of the current, multinational space station that has been continuously occupied since November 2000? International Space Station (ISS)

5. Chinese ambition (Part 1): What is the name of China's first space station module, launched in 2011?

Tiangong-1 ("Heavenly Palace-1")

6. Chinese ambition (Part 2): What is the name of China's current, permanently crewed multi-module space station? Tiangong Space Station (often just called Tiangong)

7. Commercial dawn: In 2024, a new, private commercial space station was launched. Name it.

Vast's Haven-1 (Note: As of 2024, it is the first private station launched, though others like Axiom Station modules are in development).

8. Short-lived record holder: Which U.S. station, visited only by three crews in 1973-74, held the record for the longest single crewed spaceflight (84 days) for over 20 years? Skylab (its final mission, Skylab 4, set the record).

9. Forgotten link: Which Soviet station, launched in 1977, was crucial for long-duration missions and was visited by the first non-American, non-Soviet cosmonaut (from Czechoslovakia)? Salyut 6

10. International partners: Name three of the five major partner agencies that built and operate the current international station (ISS). NASA (USA), Roscosmos (Russia), ESA (Europe), JAXA (Japan), CSA (Canada).

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Quiz Answers

1. Salyut 1

2. Skylab

3. Mir

4. International Space Station (ISS)

5. Tiangong-1 ("Heavenly Palace-1")

6. Tiangong Space Station (often just called Tiangong)

7. Vast's Haven-1 (Note: As of 2024, it is the first private station launched, though others like Axiom Station modules are in development).

8. Skylab (its final mission, Skylab 4, set the record).

9. Salyut 6

10. NASA (USA), Roscosmos (Russia), ESA (Europe), JAXA (Japan), CSA (Canada).

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Countries' Progress in Space Stations

Here’s a breakdown of the major players, from historical leaders to emerging powers.

1. United States

· Historical: Pioneered with Skylab (1973-79), proving long-duration spaceflight was possible.

· Current: The leading partner in the ISS, providing most of the funding, key modules, and operational leadership. The Space Shuttle was instrumental in its construction.

· Future: NASA's Artemis Program focuses on the Moon but includes the Lunar Gateway (a small space station in lunar orbit). It is also transitioning Low Earth Orbit (LEO) to the private sector, funding commercial stations like those planned by Axiom Space (attaching modules to the ISS first), Vast, and Blue Origin.

2. Russia (formerly Soviet Union)

· Historical: The undeniable pioneer. Launched the first station (Salyut 1), had the first long-duration crews, and built the legendary Mir station, the precursor to the ISS.

· Current: A critical partner in the ISS, providing the Zarya and Zvezda core modules, Soyuz & Progress spacecraft, and crucial propulsion.

· Future: Has announced plans for its Russian Orbital Service Station (ROSS), aiming to launch after its planned exit from the ISS partnership post-2024 (though timelines are fluid).

3. China

· Historical: A late but rapid entrant. Tested with Tiangong-1 and Tiangong-2 small space labs.

· Current: Has successfully built and crewed its permanent Tiangong Space Station. It represents a major, independent space power, operating outside the ISS framework due to U.S. political exclusion.

· Future: Plans to expand Tiangong, keep it permanently crewed for a decade+, and potentially invite international partners. A symbol of its ambition to be a space superpower.

4. Europe (European Space Agency - ESA)

· Historical: Contributed the Spacelab module for the Space Shuttle, gaining experience.

· Current: A major scientific partner of the ISS, providing the Columbus lab module, the Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV), and crucial science facilities.

· Future: Likely to partner with the U.S. on the Lunar Gateway (providing the I-Hab and ESPRIT modules) and access commercial LEO stations.

5. Japan (JAXA)

· Current: A valued ISS partner, providing the sophisticated Kibo laboratory and the H-II Transfer Vehicle (HTV) cargo ship.

· Future: Focused on lunar exploration (contributing to Gateway) and advanced technology. Likely to be a customer for commercial stations.

6. India (ISRO)

· Future: Has officially announced the Bharat Space Station project, aiming for a launch in the 2030s. This is part of its ambitious, self-reliant human spaceflight program (Gaganyaan), which will first send astronauts to LEO. A major emerging player to watch.

7. Private Companies (Global)

· Current/Immediate Future: The landscape is shifting rapidly. Companies like Axiom Space (USA), Vast (USA), Blue Origin (USA), and Nanoracks are leading the charge to build private, commercial space stations for research, tourism, and manufacturing. Haven-1 (Vast) is the first launched example. This marks the third era of space stations: government-led (Salyut), international (ISS), and now commercial.

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In Summary: The space station era began as a Cold War competition (USA vs. USSR), evolved into a model of international cooperation (ISS), and is now entering a tri-polar landscape with the ISS partnership, an independent China, and a burgeoning commercial market, with new ambitious nations like India joining the race.

Parameterization development

Parameterization development 

Imagine you’re a chef, and you have a master recipe for spaghetti sauce.

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1. The Problem (Without Parameterization)

At first, you write the recipe with fixed amounts:

· 2 onions, diced

· 4 cloves of garlic

· 2 cans of tomatoes

· 1 teaspoon of salt

This works perfectly… but only for you. If another chef wants to make it for 50 people, or if someone hates garlic, they have to rewrite the entire recipe from scratch every single time. It’s rigid and inefficient.

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2. What Parameterization Does

You parameterize the recipe. This means you replace the fixed numbers with placeholders (parameters).

Your new recipe looks like this:

· [X] onions, diced

· [Y] cloves of garlic

· [Z] cans of tomatoes

· [S] teaspoons of salt

Now, X, Y, Z, and S are your parameters.

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3. Using the Parameterized Recipe

You can now create custom sauces without changing the core recipe:

· For your family: X=2, Y=4, Z=2, S=1

· For a big wedding: X=20, Y=40, Z=20, S=10

· For a garlic-hater: X=2, Y=0, Z=2, S=1

The steps (sauté onions, add garlic, simmer tomatoes) stay the same. Only the inputs change.

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4. How This Applies to Software & Systems

In tech, "parameterization development" means building your system so that key values aren't hard-coded, but are instead supplied as inputs.

Real-world examples:

· A car dashboard display: Instead of building a separate dashboard for every model, you create one display where parameters like model_name, max_speed, and fuel_type are fed in. A sports car gets one set of parameters, a truck gets another.

· A report generator: The report layout is fixed, but parameters like start_date, end_date, and department let you generate thousands of different reports.

· A video game character: The character's creation engine uses parameters like height, strength, and hair_color to generate unique characters from the same code.

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5. The Key Benefit (In Layman's Terms)

You build something flexible and powerful once, and then reuse it endlessly by simply turning different knobs and dials (the parameters), instead of rebuilding it from scratch every time.

It turns a single-use tool into a multi-purpose machine.

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In a nutshell:

Parameterization development is like creating a fill-in-the-blanks template instead of a fixed document. The structure is built once, but the specific details (parameters) can change to fit countless different situations.

Ensemble forecasting

Ensemble forecasting

Imagine you're planning a picnic tomorrow and want to know if it'll rain. You ask five different weather experts, but they have slightly different tools and methods.

· Expert 1 says: "Likely sunny, 20% chance of rain."

· Expert 2 says: "Clouds might appear, 30% chance of rain."

· Expert 3 says: "Maybe a light shower, 50% chance of rain."

· Expert 4 says: "Sunny morning, rainy afternoon, 40% chance."

· Expert 5 says: "Rain likely, 70% chance."

Instead of picking one expert, you combine all their opinions and say:

"Most experts see some chance of rain, especially later, so maybe we should prepare for possible showers."

That’s essentially ensemble forecasting.

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In real weather science:

· Meteorologists run the same weather prediction model many times, but each time they tweak the starting conditions a tiny bit (because measurements aren’t perfect).

· They may also use slightly different model physics.

· This creates a set (ensemble) of possible future weather scenarios.

· They look at all the results together to see:

  1. What’s the most common outcome (the consensus forecast).

  2. How much the forecasts disagree (uncertainty).

  3. The probability of extreme outcomes (like heavy rain).

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Why do this?

Because the atmosphere is chaotic — a tiny change today can lead to big differences in tomorrow’s weather.

If all ensemble members show rain, high confidence.

If they’re split half sunny/half rainy, low confidence — forecasters will communicate the risk, not a certain "yes/no."

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Simple analogy:

It’s like taking not just one GPS route, but seeing 5 possible routes for your trip, each with different travel times due to uncertain traffic. You get a range of possible outcomes and can plan better knowing the uncertainty.

Data assimilation

 Let's explain data assimilation using a simple, real-world analogy.

The Weather Forecast Coffee Analogy

Imagine you're trying to predict exactly how a cup of coffee will cool down over the next hour.

1. Your Scientific Model (The Recipe): You have a notebook with a formula (a model) that considers room temperature, the cup's material, and starting coffee temperature to predict how it cools. You run this formula, and it gives you a forecast: "In 10 minutes, the coffee will be 75°C."

2. The Real World (The Truth): But the real world is messy. Your formula doesn't know about the draft from the window, the exact humidity, or that you just added a cold spoon. Your prediction will start to drift away from reality over time.

3. The Observation (The Measurement): So, you use a thermometer (an observation) to check the actual temperature right now. It reads 78°C. This is real, direct data, but it's just a single snapshot. It doesn't tell you what the temperature will be.

4. The "Assimilation" (The Smart Compromise):

   · Your formula says: "75°C."

   · Your thermometer says: "78°C."

   · You're smart, so you blend these two pieces of information. You don't throw your formula away, and you don't trust the thermometer 100% (maybe it has a tiny error). You make a best estimate that the true temperature is probably 76.5°C—a value that respectfully considers both the model's prediction and the real measurement.

5. The Key Step: Correction. Now, you reset your model to start from this new, better estimate of 76.5°C. Then, you run your formula forward again to make a new, much more accurate forecast for the next 10 minutes. You repeat this cycle: Forecast → Measure → Blend → Correct.

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In Official Terms:

Data Assimilation is the science of optimally blending incomplete real-world observations with imperfect computer model forecasts to produce the most accurate possible description of the current state of a complex system (like the atmosphere, ocean, or even your car's GPS).

Where You See It in Action:

· Weather Forecasting: This is the classic example. Supercomputers run atmospheric models, which are constantly corrected by millions of observations from weather stations, satellites, balloons, and airplanes.

· GPS/Navigation: Your phone's GPS (the observation) is sometimes inaccurate near tall buildings. It gets blended with a model of your speed and direction (from your phone's sensors) to give you a smooth, accurate position on the map.

· Climate Science: Combining historical weather data with climate models to understand past climate changes.

· Medical Imaging: Blending real-time scan data with anatomical models to create a clearer picture.

The Core Idea in a Nutshell:

· Models are good at explaining processes and making forecasts, but they drift from reality.

· Data/Measurements are real, but they are sparse, incomplete, and can have errors.

· Data Assimilation is the "best of both worlds" technique. It uses the data to anchor the model to reality constantly, producing a reliable, continuously updated picture of what's actually happening right now, which is the only reliable starting point for predicting the future.

So, it's not just collecting data. It's the intelligent, mathematical fusion of data and theory to see the present clearly.

Quantum nature of catalyst

Quantum nature of catalyst

Think of a chemical reaction like climbing over a tall, steep hill.

Without a catalyst:

· You have to climb the entire hill yourself. It takes a lot of energy and time.

· This hill is called the "activation energy barrier."

With a catalyst:

· The catalyst acts like a tunnel dug through the hill.

· You still go from the same starting point to the same finish line, but the journey is now much easier, faster, and requires far less energy.

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So, where does the "quantum" part come in?

This is the cool, invisible trick that happens inside the "tunnel." It’s not just about providing a physical surface.

1. The Quantum Handshake: Atoms and molecules are surrounded by clouds of electrons (their "quantum fuzzy jackets"). A catalyst works by temporarily forming a quantum handshake with the reacting molecules. Its electron cloud interacts and tangles with theirs, just for a split second.

2. Rearranging the "Fuzzy Jackets": This handshake subtly rearranges the electron clouds of the reactants. It stretches specific chemical bonds, weakens them, or holds molecules in just the right orientation so they "fit" together more easily.

3. A New, Easier Path: By creating this temporary, intermediate quantum state, the catalyst provides a completely new, easier pathway for the reaction. It's not just a lower hill—it's a different road that only exists because of this quantum-level interaction.

4. Letting Go and Repeating: Once the reaction is done, the new product molecules detach. The catalyst’s electron cloud snaps back to its original state, unchanged and ready to do the quantum handshake all over again.

Simple Analogy:

Imagine you need to perfectly tie two short strings together, but you have big, clumsy gloves on. It's very hard (high activation energy).

The Catalyst is like a nimble friend who:

· Temporarily takes the end of each string into their bare hands (the quantum handshake).

· Braids or knots them together with perfect precision while holding them (creating the new pathway).

· Hands you the perfectly tied knot back, with their own hands now free to tie the next set (the catalyst is unchanged).

The friend didn't add string or change the final knot. They used their dexterity to provide a new, easier method you couldn't do with your gloved hands.

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In a Nutshell:

The quantum nature of a catalyst is its ability to use the fuzzy world of electrons to temporarily "dance" with reactants. This dance rearranges things at the smallest possible level, creating a shortcut that makes reactions happen thousands or millions of times faster, without the catalyst itself being used up.

An incident in KL

During my stay in Kuala Lumpur, I was the victim of a robbery. One of the assailants struck my head with a helmet, which led to my admission to Sunway Hospital. A neurosurgeon there reviewed an MRI and diagnosed me with a brain bleed. I was presented with two treatment options: undergoing brain surgery or taking a course of specialized medication, which cost approximately RM 10,000. I opted for the medication.

My total hospitalization expenses exceeded RM 17,000. Following my discharge, I returned to my hometown. One morning, I woke up to discover I had lost my ability to speak. Fearing this might be permanent, I was deeply distressed. My father immediately took me to see a neurologist at Nan Hua Hospital in Penang.

After an examination, the neurologist prescribed a different course of medication and explained that the initial treatment I had received at Sunway Hospital had been incorrect. Thankfully, within a few days of starting the new medication, my speech returned. However, I have been left with a lasting sense of anxiety when speaking in front of groups or crowds.